A refrence grammar and lexicon of a conlang in development

By Sreek on July 19, 2026

A conlang I have been working on since I was a child. Some documentation along with some other

1. Phonology

1.1 Consonants

The consonantal inventory utilizes a standard range of articulation points.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ — /kʲ/, /ɡʲ/ /k/, /ɡ/ —
Fricative /f/, /v/ /ɸ/, /θ/, /ð/ /s/, /ɬ/, /ʃ/ — — /h/
Affricate — — /ts/, /tɬ/, /tɕ/ — — —
Trill — — /r/, /ɾ/ — — —
Approximant w — /l/, /j/ — — —
Nasal /m/ — /n/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/ —

Phonological Notes

  • /h/ may vary as [h] or [ɸ] depending on environment.
  • /ts/ and /tɬ/ alternate.

1.2 Vowels

Front Central Back
High /i, iː/ /y, yː/ /u, uː/
Mid /e, eː/ /ø, øː/ /o, oː/, /ʊ, ʊː/
Low /æ, æː/ /ɑ, ɑː/ —

Diphthongs

  • /ei/
  • /ɛi/
  • /ɔu/
  • /ɑi/
  • /ou/
  • /e/
  • /æ/
  • /eo/
  • /ɛa/

Notes

  • eeo and eea are orthographic conventions for specific diphthong qualities.
  • Length is a property of the entire diphthong.

1.3 Prosody & Sandhi

Stress

  • Typically falls on the first syllable.
  • Some noun prefixes are unstressed.
  • In verbs, prefixes are unstressed unless adverbial.

Syllable Weight

A syllable ending in a short vowel (or a short-nucleotic, codaless syllable) is light.

A sequence of a light stressed syllable followed by another syllable is equivalent to a heavy syllable in poetry.

Inner Sandhi

  • Palatal and velar sounds revert to velars before obstruents.
  • Nasals assimilate to the place of articulation of the following sound.
  • Two identical vowels combine into a long vowel.

Example:

mani + itam → maniitam

2. Noun Morphology

The language is highly inflected. Nouns decline for:

  • Gender (Masculine / Feminine / Neuter)
  • Number (Singular / Dual / Plural)
  • Case

2.1 Case System

The following paradigm uses praver ("clever/lore") to demonstrate the declension pattern.

Case Singular (Masc.) Dual (Masc.) Plural (Masc.)
Nominative praver-æθār praver-ār praver-ār
Accusative praver-æpān praver-ān praver-ān
Instrumental praver-ā praver-bhir praver-bhir
Dative praver-i praver-bhim praver-bhim
Ablative praver-eð praver-um praver-um
Genitive praver-erθ praver-am praver-am
Locative praver-ingr praver-ygr praver-ygr
Vocative praver-æθ praver-ārgr praver-ārgr

The language declines nouns according to gender, number, and case.

  • Genders: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter
  • Numbers: Singular, Dual, Plural
  • Cases:
    1. Nominative
    2. Accusative
    3. Instrumental
    4. Dative
    5. Ablative
    6. Genitive
    7. Locative
    8. Vocative

Masculine Declension

Case Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -æθ -ār -inn (geminated n; from <anon)
Accusative -æp -ān -anon
Instrumental -ā -bhir -am
Dative -i -bhim -ian
Ablative -eð -um -ʊn
Genitive -erθ -am -ām
Locative -ingr -ygr -øgan
Vocative -æθ -ārgr -afoːn

Feminine Declension

Case Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -ā -iār -iār
Accusative -ām -iān -iān
Instrumental -āi -ābhir -ābhir
Dative -ī -ābhim -ābhim
Ablative -āð -āum -āum
Genitive -ārθ -ām -ām
Locative -ingrī -ygrī -ygrī
Vocative -ā -iārgr -iārgr

Neuter Declension

Case Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -æm -īn -īn
Accusative -æm -īn -īn
Instrumental -ā -bhir -bhir
Dative -i -bhim -bhim
Ablative -eð -um -um
Genitive -erθ -am -am
Locative -ingr -ygr -ygr
Vocative -æm -īn -īn

Master Declension Reference

Case Masc. Sg. Masc. Du. Masc. Pl. Fem. Sg. Fem. Du. Fem. Pl. Neut. Sg. Neut. Du. Neut. Pl.
Nominative -æθ -ār -inn (from <anon) -æt -ī -ān (no ending) -e -ām
Accusative -æp -ān -anon -ære -avih -(aiːn)/(uːs) -ne -e -āpon
Instrumental -ā -bhir -am -ā -au -aineen -e -eːnd -iːn
Dative -i -bhim -ian -e -aith/avr -eenar -um -eːin -oːn
Ablative -eð -um -ʊn -as -e -esse -en -oʊθ -u
Genitive -erθ -am -ām -as -os -oːs -es -aʊθ -uːm
Locative -ingr -ygr -øgan -in -os -osse -ian -igr -eː
Vocative -æθ -ārgr -afoːn -æs -(auː) -inen -æð -an -avoːn

Pluralization

  • Plural: -inn
  • Dual: -ās Adjectives are invariant and do not require declension.

3. Verb Morphology

Verbs are agglutinative.

Order of suffixes:

[Mood/Tense] + [Aspect] + [Person/Number] + [Negation]

3.1 Stem Formation

There are four primary ways to form a verb stem.

Type 1

Root = Stem (base).

Type 2

Root + reduplication.

Type 3

Nasal infix before the final consonant.

Type 4

nu- added to the root.

3.2 Conjugation Paradigm (Type 1)

Person/Number Suffixes

Person Singular Dual Plural
1st -mi -vās -mas
2nd -si -θās -θe
3rd -ti -tās -nti

Tense

Tense Ending
Present -au
Aorist —
Perfect -un
Imperfect -ant
Future -ill

Mood

Mood Ending
Indicative -aug
Optative -yr
Imperative -ør
Subjunctive -ah

Negation

-na

Placed at the absolute end of the verb.

4. Pronouns

Pronouns are organized by person:

  • mi- = First person
  • tu- = Second person
  • sa- = Third person
Case 1st Nom. (Sing.) 2nd Nom. (Sing.) 3rd Nom. (Sing.)
Masculine mi-æθārinn tu-æθārinn sa-æθārinn
Feminine mi-ā tu-ā sa-ā
Neuter mi-æm tu-æm sa-æm

Note

The complete paradigm follows this same pattern for every dual/plural form and case by combining the prefixes mi-, tu-, and sa- with the noun case endings.

5. Lexicon Reference

5. Lexicon

English Root Category Gender/Class Type 1 (Present) Type 2 (Perfect) Type 3 (Nasal Infix) Type 4 (Future)
Sun ŋon Noun Masculine — — — —
Fire ɬaʃ Noun Neuter — — — —
Water ɲet Noun Feminine — — — —
Tree t͜ɕil Noun Masculine — — — —
Man kʲer Noun Masculine — — — —
Woman θuð Noun Feminine — — — —
Sky θæɲ Noun Masculine — — — —
Earth ŋoɬ Noun Feminine — — — —
Hand t͜ɕi Noun Feminine — — — —
Eye ɸir Noun Neuter — — — —
Blood pæθ Noun Neuter — — — —
Night tɬoŋ Noun Masculine — — — —
Stone kʲæ Noun Masculine — — — —
Bird vun Noun Feminine — — — —
Moon ʃæɲ Noun Neuter — — — —
Great gʲom Adjective — — — — —
Small fip Adjective — — — — —
Eat ɬo Verb — ɬo ɬoɬo ɬono ɬosya
Drink ɲin Verb — ɲin ɲiɲin ɲinn ɲinsya
Stand t͜ɕa Verb — t͜ɕa t͜ɕat͜ɕa t͜ɕana t͜ɕasya
Hear ŋur Verb — ŋur ŋuŋur ŋunur ŋursya
See ɲa Verb — ɲa ɲaɲa ɲana ɲasya
Know t͜ɕeθ Verb — t͜ɕeθ t͜ɕet͜ɕeθ t͜ɕeneθ t͜ɕeθsya
Give vif Verb — vif vivif vinf vifsya
Die θoɬ Verb — θoɬ θoθoɬ θonoɬ θoɬsya
Kill pək Verb — pək pəpək pənək pəksya
Fly lɔŋ Verb — lɔŋ lɔlɔŋ lɔnŋ lɔŋsya
Walk ʃur Verb — ʃur ʃuʃur ʃunur ʃursya
Speak kʲa Verb — kʲa kʲakʲa kʲana kʲasya
Sleep tɬo Verb — tɬo tɬotɬo tɬono tɬosya
Breathe ɸu Verb — ɸu ɸuɸu ɸunu ɸusya

6. Syntactic Notes

Compounding

Endocentric compounding is productive.

Attributive

The first element qualifies the second.

Numerative

The first element states quantity.

Negation

  • -a (word-level negation)
  • -na (verbal negation suffix)

Nominalization

Suffix Function
-aan Noun
-aar Noun
-i Feminine
-yaar Masculine

[^1]

6. Function Words

Conjunctions

Type English Conlang Notes / Usage
Conjunction And kɑ Connects equal items or clauses
Conjunction But ɸuθ Introduces a contrast
Conjunction Or wæ Introduces an alternative
Conjunction If ʃei Introduces a conditional clause
Conjunction Because tɬom Introduces a reason

Demonstratives

Type English Conlang Notes / Usage
Demonstrative This ði Points to a near object
Demonstrative That ðɑ Points to a far object

Interrogatives

Type English Conlang Notes / Usage
Interrogative Who ʍæ Questions a person
Interrogative What ʍo Questions a thing
Interrogative Where ʍingr Questions a location (mimics the locative suffix -ingr)

Postpositions

Type English Conlang Notes / Usage
Postposition In / Inside ɬe Follows the noun; governs the Locative case
Postposition Towards / To t͜ɕu Follows the noun; governs the Dative case
Postposition From / Out of ɲeð Follows the noun; governs the Ablative case
Postposition With (Together) væn Follows the noun; governs the Instrumental case

7. Pronouns

Personal pronouns are formed by combining the person prefix with the regular case and number endings.

Person Case Masc. Sg. Masc. Du. Masc. Pl. Fem. Sg. Fem. Du. Fem. Pl. Neut. Sg. Neut. Du. Neut. Pl.
1st (mi-) Nom mi-æθārinn mi-ætiːān mi-eām mi-ā mi-iār mi-iār mi-æm mi-īn mi-īn
Acc mi-æpān mi-æreavih mi-eāpon mi-ām mi-iān mi-iān mi-æm mi-īn mi-īn
Inst mi-ābhir mi-am mi-auaineen mi-āi mi-ābhir mi-ābhir mi-ā mi-bhir mi-bhir
Dat mi-ibhim mi-ian mi-aith/avreenar mi-ī mi-ābhim mi-ābhim mi-i mi-bhim mi-bhim
Abl mi-eðum mi-ʊn mi-asse mi-āð mi-āum mi-āum mi-eð mi-um mi-um
Gen mi-erθam mi-ām mi-asosoːses mi-ārθ mi-ām mi-ām mi-erθ mi-am mi-am
Loc mi-ingr mi-ygr mi-øganin mi-ingrī mi-ygrī mi-ygrī mi-ingr mi-ygr mi-ygr
Voc mi-æθār mi-grafoːn mi-æs(au)ːinen mi-ā mi-iārgr mi-iārgr mi-æm mi-īn mi-īn
2nd (tu-) Nom tu-æθārinn tu-ætiːān tu-eām tu-ā tu-iār tu-iār tu-æm tu-īn tu-īn
Acc tu-æpān tu-æreavih tu-eāpon tu-ām tu-iān tu-iān tu-æm tu-īn tu-īn
Inst tu-ābhir tu-am tu-auaineen tu-āi tu-ābhir tu-ābhir tu-ā tu-bhir tu-bhir
Dat tu-ibhim tu-ian tu-aith/avreenar tu-ī tu-ābhim tu-ābhim tu-i tu-bhim tu-bhim
Abl tu-eðum tu-ʊn tu-asse tu-āð tu-āum tu-āum tu-eð tu-um tu-um
Gen tu-erθam tu-ām tu-asosoːses tu-ārθ tu-ām tu-ām tu-erθ tu-am tu-am
Loc tu-ingr tu-ygr tu-øganin tu-ingrī tu-ygrī tu-ygrī tu-ingr tu-ygr tu-ygr
Voc tu-æθār tu-grafoːn tu-æs(au)ːinen tu-ā tu-iārgr tu-iārgr tu-æm tu-īn tu-īn
3rd (sa-) Nom sa-æθārinn sa-ætiːān sa-eām sa-ā sa-iār sa-iār sa-æm sa-īn sa-īn
Acc sa-æpān sa-æreavih sa-eāpon sa-ām sa-iān sa-iān sa-æm sa-īn sa-īn
Inst sa-ābhir sa-am sa-auaineen sa-āi sa-ābhir sa-ābhir sa-ā sa-bhir sa-bhir
Dat sa-ibhim sa-ian sa-aith/avreenar sa-ī sa-ābhim sa-ābhim sa-i sa-bhim sa-bhim
Abl sa-eðum sa-ʊn sa-asse sa-āð sa-āum sa-āum sa-eð sa-um sa-um
Gen sa-erθam sa-ām sa-asosoːses sa-ārθ sa-ām sa-ām sa-erθ sa-am sa-am
Loc sa-ingr sa-ygr sa-øganin sa-ingrī sa-ygrī sa-ygrī sa-ingr sa-ygr sa-ygr
Voc sa-æθār sa-grafoːn sa-æs(au)ːinen sa-ā sa-iārgr sa-iārgr sa-æm sa-īn sa-īn

7. Syntax

7.1 Relative Clauses (Compounded)

Relative clauses are formed by transforming the verb into a gendered participle using the nominalization suffixes and compounding it directly with the head noun.

The participle functions as the first element of an endocentric compound, qualifying the noun that follows.

Structure

[Clause Content] + [Verb-Suffix] + [Head Noun]

Rules

  • The verb takes the gender/number suffix matching the head noun.
  • The participle and the noun are compounded (or hyphenated) into a single semantic unit.
  • Relative clauses precede the noun they modify.

Participle Agreement

Head Noun Gender Participle Suffix Example
Masculine -yaar vun-ām ɲa-yaar kʲer ("the bird-seeing man")
Feminine -i vun-ām ɲa-i vun ("the bird-seeing bird")
Neuter -aan vun-ām ɲa-aan ɸir ("the bird-seeing eye")

Example

vun-ām ɲa-yaar kʲer t͜ɕa-au

bird-ACC see-MASC.PART-man stand-PRES

"The bird-seeing man stands."

7.2 Complement Clauses

Complement clauses (clauses functioning as the object of a verb, such as "I know that...") are formed using the subordinating particle tɬom.

Structure

[Subordinate Subject] + [Subordinate Verb-tɬom] + [Main Verb]

Rules

  • The subordinate clause retains normal finite verbal morphology.
  • The particle -tɬom is appended to the subordinate verb.
  • The entire subordinate clause functions as the object of the main verb.

Example

Sa tɬo-au-tɬom t͜ɕeθ-mi

sa      tɬo-au-tɬom      t͜ɕeθ-mi
3SG     sleep-PRES-THAT  know-1SG

"I know that she is sleeping."

7.3 Constituent Order (SOV)

The language follows a canonical Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) word order.

Relative Clauses

Because relative clauses are compounded with the noun, they occupy the same syntactic position as the noun phrase.

[Subject] + [Object (Relative Compound)] + [Verb]

Complement Clauses

Complement clauses function as the object of the main verb and therefore precede the main verb.

[Subject] + [Complement Clause] + [Main Verb]

Summary

Construction Word Order
Simple Clause Subject → Object → Verb
Relative Clause Subject → Relative Compound → Verb
Complement Clause Subject → Complement Clause → Main Verb

A

praver

Root: vír (from Older viráz "clever, knowledgeable, possessing lore")

Stem: praver

Part of Speech: Adjective

Meaning:

  • clever
  • knowledgeable
  • skilled in lore

Inflection Class: Adjective Class I

Derived Forms

Form Meaning
vírald wizard, sorcerer, magician

Notes

Derived from the root vír, denoting wisdom, cleverness, and mastery of hidden knowledge.

vírald

Root: vír

Stem: vírald

Part of Speech: Noun

Gender: Masculine

Meaning

  • wizard
  • magician
  • sorcerer

Derived from

praver

vymin

Root: vír (through older vyamin*)*

Part of Speech: Noun

Gender: Masculine

Meaning

A large flying beast possessing poisonous breath, similar to a dragon and renowned for exceptional cunning.

breyn

Part of Speech: Noun / Abstract

Meaning

  • strength
  • power
  • greatness

Core Vocabulary

English Root Part of Speech Gender Notes
Sun ŋon Noun Masculine Celestial body
Moon ʃæɲ Noun Neuter Celestial body
Fire ɬaʃ Noun Neuter Element
Water ɲet Noun Feminine Element
Sky θæɲ Noun Masculine Natural feature
Earth ŋoɬ Noun Feminine Ground, world
Tree t͜ɕil Noun Masculine Plant
Stone kʲæ Noun Masculine Rock
Bird vun Noun Feminine Animal
Hand t͜ɕi Noun Feminine Body part
Eye ɸir Noun Neuter Body part
Blood pæθ Noun Neuter Body fluid
Night tɬoŋ Noun Masculine Time
Man kʲer Noun Masculine Human
Woman θuð Noun Feminine Human
Great gʲom Adjective — Descriptive
Small fip Adjective — Descriptive

Verbs

English Root Stem Type I Type II (Reduplicated) Type III (Nasal Infix) Type IV (Future Stem)
Eat ɬo ɬo ɬoɬo ɬono ɬosya
Drink ɲin ɲin ɲiɲin ɲinn ɲinsya
Stand t͜ɕa t͜ɕa t͜ɕat͜ɕa t͜ɕana t͜ɕasya
Hear ŋur ŋur ŋuŋur ŋunur ŋursya
See ɲa ɲa ɲaɲa ɲana ɲasya
Know t͜ɕeθ t͜ɕeθ t͜ɕet͜ɕeθ t͜ɕeneθ t͜ɕeθsya
Give vif vif vivif vinf vifsya
Die θoɬ θoɬ θoθoɬ θonoɬ θoɬsya
Kill pək pək pəpək pənək pəksya
Fly lɔŋ lɔŋ lɔlɔŋ lɔnŋ lɔŋsya
Walk ʃur ʃur ʃuʃur ʃunur ʃursya
Speak kʲa kʲa kʲakʲa kʲana kʲasya
Sleep tɬo tɬo tɬotɬo tɬono tɬosya
Breathe ɸu ɸu ɸuɸu ɸunu ɸusya

Function Words

Conjunctions

English Conlang
and kɑ
but ɸuθ
or wæ
if ʃei
because tɬom

Demonstratives

English Conlang
this ði
that ðɑ

Interrogatives

English Conlang
who ʍæ
what ʍo
where ʍingr

Postpositions

English Conlang Governs
in ɬe Locative
to t͜ɕu Dative
from ɲeð Ablative
with væn Instrumental

Sample Glossed Texts

The following examples use only (or almost entirely) the current lexicon and follow the language's SOV structure.

These examples use full noun case marking and finite verbal agreement according to the grammar.

1. The Great Sun Gives Water to the Earth.

Conlang

Gʲom ŋon-æθ ŋoɬ-i vif-au-ti.

Gloss

gʲom     ŋon-æθ      ŋoɬ-i       vif-au-ti
great    sun-NOM     earth-DAT   give-PRES-3SG

Translation

The great Sun gives unto the Earth.

2. The Wise Man Knows the Fire.

Conlang

Praver kʲer-æθ ɬaʃ-æm t͜ɕeθ-au-ti.

Gloss

praver   kʲer-æθ     ɬaʃ-æm      t͜ɕeθ-au-ti
wise     man-NOM     fire-ACC    know-PRES-3SG

Translation

The wise man knows the Fire.

3. The Bird Beholds the Great Sun.

Conlang

Vun-ā ŋon-æp gʲom ɲa-au-ti.

Gloss

vun-ā      ŋon-æp      gʲom     ɲa-au-ti
bird-NOM   sun-ACC     great    see-PRES-3SG

Translation

The bird beholds the great Sun.

4. The Woman Hears the Word of the Wise Man.

Conlang

Θuð-ā praver kʲer-erθ kʲa-aan-æp ŋur-au-ti.

Gloss

θuð-ā          praver     kʲer-erθ      kʲa-aan-æp        ŋur-au-ti
woman-NOM      wise       man-GEN       speech-NMLZ-ACC   hear-PRES-3SG

Translation

The woman hears the word of the wise man.

Hymn of the Dawn

Conlang

Gʲom ŋon-æθ
ɲet-æp vif-au-ti.

ɬaʃ-æθ tɬoŋ-æp ɬo-au-ti.

Praver kʲer-æθ
θæɲ-æp ɲa-au-ti,
ŋon-erθ breyn-æp
t͜ɕeθ-au-ti.

Gloss

gʲom     ŋon-æθ
great    sun-NOM

ɲet-æp      vif-au-ti
water-ACC   give-PRES-3SG

ɬaʃ-æθ      tɬoŋ-æp      ɬo-au-ti
fire-NOM    night-ACC    consume-PRES-3SG

praver      kʲer-æθ
wise         man-NOM

θæɲ-æp      ɲa-au-ti
sky-ACC     see-PRES-3SG

ŋon-erθ      breyn-æp
sun-GEN      strength-ACC

t͜ɕeθ-au-ti
know-PRES-3SG

Translation

*Great is the Sun, who gives the waters.

Fire consumes the night.

The wise man beholds the heavens and knows the strength of the Sun.* [^1]: Free Word Order with a tendency for SOV

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